This study aims to investigate the impact of cognitive, affective and social factors on the English as a second language (L2) achievement of students in Indian Universities at UG and PG levels. Covariance-based structural equation modeling (CB SEM) was used to test a hypothesized structural model which connects three exogenous latent constructs, namely the ones of the Cognitive Factors (language aptitude, working memory and metacognitive strategy use), Affective Factors (motivation, language anxiety, self-efficacy) and Social Factors (family support, peer interaction, classroom environment) to the latent construct of L2 Proficiency, based on Gardner’s socio educational model, Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypothesis and Vygotskian sociocultural theory. Mikić Čolić (2025) [11] pointed to the importance of affective factors when learning a second language, such as learners’ motivation and positive attitude towards learning, the support they receive in the classroom, and a positive classroom climate. A 36-item questionnaire was administered, and a standardised proficiency assessment was conducted to collect data from 412 students across six universities in India. Confirmatory factor analysis yielded a four factor measurement model, and the structural model fit well (χ2df = 2.14, CFI = .951, TLI = .942, RMSEA = .052, SRMR = .048). Affective factors had the most powerful direct impact on proficiency (coefficient, or beta = .41, p < .001); cognitive factors had the next strongest direct impact (beta = .34, p < .001), and social factors had a direct impact (beta = .22, p < .01) as well as indirect effects through the cognitive and affective paths. The results highlight the importance of motivation and anxiety management, along with cognitive skill development, in the teaching and learning of L2S in the Indian context, and their implications for curriculum design, teacher training, and classroom support services.
